Life And Times Of Alexander The Great Essay -- essays research papers

Life and Times of Alexander the Great Introduction Alexander the great made an impact on world history that few individuals can profess to have done. He ruled all of the known world, and one of the largest empires ever. His men were the first westerners to encounter tales of the Yeti. They even discovered and classified new types of flora and fauna, such as the red mold that grew on their bread while they were in Asia, and made it appear as if it were bleeding. He expanded the Hellenist sphere of influence to the farthest reaches of the globe. When the king of Greece visited the British colony of India around the turn of the century, the colonial government had some native Indian dances displayed for him. He was shocked when he immediately recognized the dances as the same harvest dances that his fellow Greeks performed near Thessalonika. This was the breadth of Alexander's influence on hundreds of different cultures around the world. Throughout the whole of Europe, Asia, and North Africa, stories of this great man have been handed down from generation to generation throughout the centuries. In many cases Alexander has even taken on a superhuman aura, and many unbelievable legends have been based on his life. When Julius Caesar visited Alexandria, he asked to see the body of the greatest warrior of all time-Alexander the Great. Such was Alexander's reputation, able to impress even the powerful Caesar. He was, without a doubt, one of the most remarkable men that ever walked the face of this Earth. And this is the story of his life. The Life and Times of Alexander the Great The story of Alexander the Great is one of courage, genius, and great accomplishment; but it is also somewhat of a bittersweet one, ending with his tragic death during the prime of his life, at thirty-two. Alexander was born to Philip II of Macedon and Olympias, his principal wife, in 356 BCE, mpic Games. Just three years earlier, Philip had ascended to the throne after the death of his older brother, Perdikkas1, and named the city of Philipi after himself. Shortly thereafter, at the age of twenty, he met Olympias at a religious ceremony on the island of Samothrace. Olympias was of the Mystery Religions, and... ... Alexander had at last learned his lesson and began trusting Philip. Philip, though had finally had enough of Ptolemy and the rest of Alexander's friends meddling in Alexander's business, and exiled them from Macedonia "sine die". In Alexander's twentieth year, Philip was ready to begin his conquest of Persia and Asia Minor, but first he had to cement Epeiros's allegiance to him by marrying off Cleopatra (his only daughter from Olympias) to King Alexander of Epeiros. At daybreak the wedding procession began. Twelve of the Greek deities led the procession with Philip following close behind. A man posing as a guard gained access to Philip's entourage and stabbed Philip in the side before anyone could stop him. This man, later identified as Pausanias, had a horse prepared for a quick departure, but as fate would have it, he tripped over a bush, and was transfixed with a spear before he was able to rise to his feet. But there was no helping Philip- he was quite dead. Alexander was a firm believer in the saying, "The king is dead,

Mill’s View of Lower/Higher Pleasures

Mill is a utilitarian philosopher who lives by the Greatest Happiness Principle, in which there is a clear distinction between both lower and higher pleasures. Though thoroughly explained, one must also question the justification of these pleasures. Many of these beliefs leave the reader hanging on the edge, with further questions that need to be answered. What is the exact distinction between the lower and higher pleasures? And how are higher pleasures measured as most valuable? How clearly is Mill’s view of lower and higher pleasures justified? Mill, unlike some utilitarians (Epicureans), believes that there is an immense distinction between higher and lower pleasures. Lower pleasures, according to Mill, are those based off of sensations. â€Å"Few human creatures would consent to be changed into an of the lower animals for a promise of the fullest allowance of a beast’s pleasures†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Mill, Self-Love 506) Both humans and animals are capable of experiencing these pleasures, but what Mill believes is that only Humans are capable of the higher pleasures, and therefore no intelligent human being would chose to become an animal incapable of these more valuable pleasures. The lower pleasures are based off of sensations in which include things such as our five senses: taste, hearing, touch, sight and the sense of smell. One will experience these pleasures multiple times daily, thus reducing the amount of satisfaction one feels when experiencing a lower pleasure. Mill believes that animals and human beings both share similar experiences when it comes to the lower pleasures, but that only human beings are capable of the higher pleasures. How one measures the justification of the distinction between the lower pleasures and the higher pleasures is based mostly on opinion. It does make sense that since human beings are most definitely superior in the intellectual field that in order to achieve a greater value of happiness one must experience the higher pleasures, but who says that animals are not capable of any of the higher pleasures? â€Å"†¦to the love of power, or the love of excitement, both of which really do enter into and contribute to it†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Mill, Self-Love 507) Now, I know for a fact that my dog is very capable of being excited. All he does is run around the entire house multiple times after showing him five seconds of love. So if the love of excitement contributes greatly to a higher pleasure with a greater value of happiness, then at least some inferior species must be capable of experiencing these higher pleasures. â€Å"It is better to be a human being satisfied than a pig satisfied. † (Mill, Self-Love 507). Mill has never experienced the life of one of the â€Å"lower animals†, and therefore cannot be one hundred percent sure of his opinion. The only way to justify Mill’s answer would to conduct an experiment in which involves observing the animals’ actions and reactions. Did you know dogs have around 100 facial expressions? Now if a dog is capable of having more facial expressions than a human being, how can one come to the conclusion that dogs are incapable of any of the higher pleasures? â€Å"If I am asked what I mean by difference of quality in pleasures, or what makes one pleasure more valuable than another, merely as a pleasure†¦. Of two pleasures, if there be one to which all or almost all who have experience of both give a dedicated preference, irrespective of any feeling of moral obligation to prefer it, that is the more desirable pleasure. (Mill, Self-Love 506) What he is trying to explain is that if one of the pleasures takes precedence for the majority of the people who experienced both pleasures, without being chosen because of certain natural feelings and/or based off of the person’s morals, then that is the pleasure in which holds the greatest value. One question a critic might ask would be why not trust your moral obligat ions or your feelings? And what instinct are we to base our decision off of if we are not to trust our own feelings or morals? Mill’s view on the greatest valued pleasure is clear, but he does not explain what one should base his or her decision on. â€Å"†¦the pleasures of intellect, of the feelings and imagination, and of moral sentiments, a much higher value as pleasures than to those of mere sensation. † (Mill, Self-Love 506). Basically, only human beings have the overall brainpower to experience these â€Å"higher pleasures†. These higher pleasures do not occur as often, which then indicates that higher pleasures are more valuable, as their occurrence are significantly more rare than the lower pleasures. Most utilitarian writers, including Mill, place supremacy in mental pleasures over bodily pleasures because of their circumstantial advantages, and in regards to safety are much less risky when it comes to injury and whatnot. But one must consider the following: What about athletes? Models? Stuntmen or professional weight lifters? An individual who is perusing a career in which is physically dominated might consider physical pleasures and achievements to be of a greater value of happiness than mental pleasures. One would only assume that Mill and other tilitarian writers consider pleasures of intellect to be of greater value, they are philosophers. What they enjoy doing is exploiting their thoughts into words to share with the rest of the world; that is what keeps their motor running strong each and every day. â€Å"A being of higher faculties requires more to make him happy†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Mill, Self-Love 507). Mill in his eyes is justified by this due to the fact that he believes t hat humans are the only living beings capable of higher pleasures on Earth, so therefore a human being must have these higher pleasures because of their need for a greater value of happiness. But on the contrary, if a being of a lower faculty requires less to be happy, then the lower pleasures should be just as valuable to the inferior species as the higher pleasures are to the more capable beings. Who says that the other animals on this planet are inferior beings to humans anyways? How does one measure superiority? It all depends on the individual’s opinion. Someone like Mill might believe that mental capability and capacity are the most accurate units of measurement when it comes to who is the top dog. But just because human beings are more capable than animals mentally, it does not mean that we are the superior beings. If one were to measure superiority in the aspect of happiness, then one would have to believe that the lower species are most superior. Every living being on planet Earth is on the pursuit of happiness, and if lower species receive more satisfaction from the lower pleasures, then the beings we think to be inferior are much better off than we are. Since human beings are so much more capable mentally, then they are also more prone to be unhappy, as the lower pleasures are taken for granted since they do not provide enough happiness for one to be as satisfied as the other animal species. Mill believes in a clear distinction between the â€Å"lower and higher pleasures†, and that only humans are capable of the higher pleasures. One must question just how justified Mill is in his beliefs, as he has never experienced life as a â€Å"lower animal†. Who says that the higher pleasures only include those associated with the mental world?

Definition and Examples of Propaganda

Propaganda is a form of psychological warfare that involves the  spreading of information and ideas to advance a cause or discredit an opposing cause.   In their book Propaganda and Persuasion (2011), Garth S. Jowett and Victoria ODonnell define propaganda as the deliberate and systematic attempt to shape perceptions, manipulate cognitions, and direct behavior to achieve a response that furthers the desired intent of the propagandist. Pronunciation: prop-eh-GAN-da Etymology: from the Latin, to propagate Examples and Observations Every day we are bombarded with one persuasive communication after another. These appeals persuade not through the give-and-take of argument and debate but through the manipulation of symbols and of our most basic human emotions. For better or worse, ours is an age of propaganda.(Anthony Pratkanis and Elliot Aronson, Age of Propaganda: The Everyday Use and Abuse of Persuasion, rev. ed. Owl Books, 2002) Rhetoric and Propaganda Rhetoric and propaganda, both in popular and academic commentary, are widely viewed as interchangeable forms of communication; and historical treatments of propaganda often include classical rhetoric (and sophistry) as early forms or antecedents of modern propaganda (e.g., Jowett and ODonnell, 1992. pp. 27-31).(Stanley B. Cunningham, The Idea of Propaganda: A Reconstruction. Praeger, 2002)Throughout the history of rhetoric, . . . critics have deliberately drawn distinctions between rhetoric and propaganda. On the other hand, evidence of the conflation of rhetoric and propaganda, under the general notion of persuasion, has become increasingly obvious, especially in the classroom, where students seem incapable of differentiating among the suasory forms of communication pervasive now in our heavily mediated society. . . .In a society where the system of government is based, at least in part, on the full, robust, give-and-take of persuasion in the context of debate, this conflation is de eply troubling. To the extent that all persuasive activity was lumped together with propaganda and given the evil connotation (Hummel Huntress 1949, p. 1) the label carried, persuasive speech (i.e. rhetoric) would never hold the central place in education or democratic civic life it was designed to. (Beth S. Bennett and Sean Patrick ORourke, A Prolegomenon to the Future Study of Rhetoric and Propaganda. Readings in Propaganda and Persuasion: New and Classic Essays, ed by Garth S. Jowett and Victoria ODonnell. Sage, 2006) Examples of Propaganda A massive propaganda campaign by the South Korean military drew an ominous warning from North Korea on Sunday, with Pyongyang saying that it would fire across the border at anyone sending helium balloons carrying anti-North Korean messages into the country.A statement carried by the North’s official news agency said the balloon-and-leaflet campaign by the puppet military in the frontline area is a treacherous deed and a wanton challenge to peace on the Korean Peninsula.(Mark McDonald, N. Korea Threatens South on Balloon Propaganda. The New York Times, Feb. 27, 2011)The US military is developing software that will let it secretly manipulate social media sites by using fake online personas to influence internet conversations and spread pro-American propaganda.A Californian corporation has been awarded a contract with United States Central Command (Centcom), which oversees US armed operations in the Middle East and Central Asia, to develop what is described as an online persona m anagement service that will allow one US serviceman or woman to control up to 10 separate identities based all over the world.(Nick Fielding and Ian Cobain, Revealed: US Spy Operation That Manipulates Social Media. The Guardian, March 17, 2011) ISIS Propaganda Former US public diplomacy officials fear the sophisticated, social media-borne propaganda of the Islamic State militant group (Isis) is outmatching American efforts at countering it.Isis propaganda runs the gamut from the gruesome video-recorded beheadings of journalists James Foley and Steven Sotloff to Instagram photographs of cats with AK-47s, indicating a comfort Isis has with internet culture. A common theme, shown in euphoric images uploaded to YouTube of jihadi fighters parading in armored US-made vehicles captured from the Iraqi military, is Isis’s potency and success. . . .Online, the most visible US attempt to counter to Isis comes from a social media campaign called Think Again Turn Away, run by a State Department office called the Center for Strategic Counterterrorism Communications.(Spencer Ackerman, Isiss Online Propaganda Outpacing US Counter-Efforts. The Guardian, September 22, 2014) The Aims of Propaganda The characteristic that propaganda is a form of mass media argumentation should not, in itself, be regarded as sufficient for drawing the conclusion that all propaganda is irrational or illogical or that any argument used in propaganda is for that reason alone fallacious. . . .[T]he aim of propaganda is not just to secure a respondents assent to a proposition by persuading him that it is true or that it is supported by propositions he is already committed to. The aim of propaganda is to get the respondent to act, to adopt a certain course of action, or to go along with and assist in a particular policy. Merely securing assent or commitment to a proposition is not enough to make propaganda successful in securing its aim.(Douglas N. Walton, Media Argumentation: Dialectic, Persuasion, and Rhetoric. Cambridge University Press, 2007) Recognizing Propaganda The only truly serious attitude . . . is to show people the extreme effectiveness of the weapon used against them, to rouse them to defend themselves by making them aware of their frailty and their vulnerability instead of soothing them with the worst illusion, that of a security that neither mans nature nor the techniques of propaganda permit him to possess. It is merely convenient to realize that the side of freedom and truth for man has not yet lost, but that it may well lose--and that in this game, propaganda is undoubtedly the most formidable power, acting in only one direction (toward the destruction of truth and freedom), no matter what the good intentions or the goodwill may be of those who manipulate it.(Jacques Ellul, Propaganda: The Formation of Mens Attitudes. Vintage Books, 1973)